University of PGRI has many kinds organization which exist. Each programmed study has an organization which have as member are undergraduate. This organization intends to training all undergraduate become stand alone. Not only accomplish the assignments but also solve the problem with together. As well as, to prepare of undergraduate before they are into environment of social life. This essay will explain about low participation the undergraduate of English Education.
Several undergraduate of English Education neither they dislike organized nor the lack the ability to communicated, but because they consider when join in organization, they will disturb their activity. Except that, activities of organization often collide with their activity, such as course and studied group. Whereas they want to socialization and know about development of this organization too.
Based on information about future activity of HMPS Bahasa Inggris organization, at January, 14th 2012 will be arranging a seminary about developing to learn of English well. In this seminary need supporting of undergraduate in order to be success. Under graduate can be participated with attend and become members in that seminary. If don’t undergraduate to support this activity of organization, who else??? . To solve this problem, all active partners should arrange meeting with all undergraduate of English education particularly every month. This meeting for socialization and giving information about development of organization. Notwithstanding, as passive partner in organization they can participated in this way directly or indirectly
Morphology is the study of word formation, was to describe all the basic elementwhich are used in language. And the Morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning.For example of morpheme:
1. “The police reopened the investigation” ,
there is consistof three morphemes. One minimal unit of meaning is open, another minimal unit of meaning is re- (meaning ‘again’) and a minimal unit of grammatical function is –ed (indicating past tense).
Three principal approaches to Morphology,there are:
- Morpheme-based Morphology, which makes use of an Item-and-Arrangement approach.
- Lexeme-based Morphology, which normally makes use of an Item-and- Process approach.
- Word-based Morphology, which normally use of a Word-and Paradigm approach.
Free and bound morphemes
Free morphemes can stand by themselves as single words . Bound morphemes cannot stand by itself as it would have no meaning.
Free morphemes can be subdivided into two categories:
1. Lexical morphemes are words that have some meaning –verbs, adjectives, nouns.
For example : print, house, pretty, fire, go, girl.
2. Functional morphemes, on the other hand, are a closed class of words, prepositions, pronouns.
For example : and, but, when, because, on, near, above, to, that, that, it.
Bound Morpheme which are subdivided into
1. Derivational Morpheme, are those morphemes which produce new words, or change the function of a word.
2. Inflectional morphemes do not create new words, but only show grammatical functions of a word. A good example of an inflectional language could be Latin which has numerous case endings for nouns, as well as endings for verbs and adjectives. For examples :
- To make plural : Boy-boys, car-cars, etc.
- To form tenses : Walk-walked, go-gone, present-presented,etc.
- To make comparison : Long, longer, and longest.
- To show possessive : Boy : Boy’s room, girl’s room, etc.
We noted that there is a morpheme in English, meaning “not” that has the form un and that when combined with adjectives like afraid, fit, free, smooth, American, and British forms the antonyms, or negatives, ofthese adjectives – for examples, unafraid, unfit, unfree, unsmooth, un-American, and un-British. We can also add the prefix un- to derived words that have been formed by morphological rules.
Un + believe + able Un + accept + able Un + talk + about + able Un + keep + off + able Un + speak + able
The rule seems to be freely applicable to an adjectival form derived from a verb, as in unenlightened, unsimplified,uncharacterized, unauthorized, undistinguished, and so on.It’s true, however, that we cannot always know the meaning of the words derived from free and derivational morphemes from the morphemes themselves. The following un + words unpredictable meanings:
Unloosen loosen, let loose
Unriprip, undo by ripping
Undoreverse doing
Untreadgo back through in the same steps
Unearthdig up
Un frockdeprive (in cleric) of ecclesiastic rank
Unnervefluster
ALLOMORPH
where the same distinction is effected by alternative forms of a "word", are called allomorphy.
In English, we have word form pairs like ox/oxen, goose/geese, and sheep/sheep, where the difference between the singular and the plural is signaled in a way that departs from the regular pattern, or is not signaled at all.
Even cases considered "regular", with the final -s, are not so simple; the -s in dogs is not pronounced the same way as the -s in cats, and in a plural like dishes, an "extra" vowel appears before the -s.
On the other hand, compounds formed with preposition are in the category of the nonprepositional part of the compounds, such as :
- Overtake (Verb)-Hanger-on (Preposition)
- Undertake (Verb)-Sandown (Preposition)
- Afterbirth (Noun)-Downfall (Noun)
- Uplift (Verb)
. Acronyms
Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words. Such words are pronounced as the spelling indicates. For example :
-UFO = Unidentified flying Object
-UNO = United Nation Organization
Blends Blends are compounds that are less than compounds, or we can say that Blends are the combination of parts of words, as in :
Brunch = Breakfast + Lunch
Chunnel = Channel + Tunnel
Abbrevation
Abbreviation is part of longer words or pharases. The process is sometimes called Clipping, as in :
-Phone = Telephone
-Math = Mathematic
Words From Names The creativity of word coinage (or vocabulary addition) is also revealed by the number of words in English vocabulary that derive from proper names individuals or places.
Back Formation
New words may be formed from existing words by substracting an affix. As in :
To edit = derived from the word editor.
To peddle = derived from the word peddler.
Borrowing One of the common sources of the new words in English is the process labeled borrowing, that is, the taking over of words from other languages. Throughout its history the English languages has adopted a vast number of loan words from other languages. As in :
•A vowel is a type of sound for which there is no closure of the throat or mouth at any point where vocalization occurs.
•In English, there are five letters which always represent a vowel when written: a, e, i, o, and u. These five letters represent more than five vowel sounds, however, depending on the word, or if they are combined with other vowels.
X-rays of Daniel Jones' [i, u, a, ɑ].
The following list goes from the high front vowels through to the low back vowel and ends with diphthongs.
/i:/see, eat, key//raw, fall, caught
/i /hit, myth, lip//hot, not, pot
/e /pen, said, dead/a:/father, far, are
/ae/sat, black, pat/ei/make, weight, play
//above, sofa, but/aw/cow, loud, house
//blood, tough, cut//boy, void, toy
/u:/move, two, glue/ou/home, though, loan
/u /put, book, could/ai/try, like, find
/a/ is always pronounced like the English /a/ in ‘far’;‘car’;‘jar’
Example:
•saya – I
•apa – what
•kaya – rich
•makan – eat
•tanam – plant
/i/ is always pronounced like the English /ee/ in ‘bee’;‘teeth’
Example:
•ini – this
•sini – here
•gila – crazy
•kami – we
•indah – beautiful
Vowel /e/ Has Two Different Sounds
Letter (Grapheme) and sound (phoneme) are 2 (two) different things. The following examples show different ways to pronounce the letter /e/ for different words in Indonesian language.
Example:
•Saya lebih senang mobil sédan ketimbang pickup.
•Mendengar berita yang menyedihkan itu ia menangis tersedu-sedan.
•Nénék datang nanti sore.
Vowel /o/ Has Two Different Sounds
•The first one is like the English /o/ in ‘cold’; ‘bold’
•The second one is pronounced like the English /o/ in ‘hot’;‘shot’
DIPHTHONGS
•A diphthong literally "two sounds" or "two tones", also known as a gliding vowel, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syillable .
•Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: That is, the tongue moves during the pronunciation of the vowel. In most dialects of english, the words eye, hay, boy, low, and cow contain diphthongs.
Types of Diphthongs
Falling and Rising
•Falling (or descending) diphthongs start with a vowel quality of higher prominence(higher pitch or volume) and end in a semivowel with less prominence, like [aɪ̯] in eye,.
•Rising (or ascending) diphthongs begin with a less prominent semivowel and end with a more prominent full vowel, similar to the [ja] in yard.
Closing / Rising Dipthongs: ei ou ai au
Example:
•/ ei /make, break, steak, weight, pain, table, rain, brain
•/ ou /home, only, go, fold, grown, won’t, most, load
•/ai /like, high, height, night, child, sky, drive, died
Many references which describe about syntax according to rule but difficult to understanding. However, many students or undergraduate understand about of syntax. Our purpose in this article is to easier about syntax and give result to student or undergraduate, we describe the syntax in this way, simple. We will first discuss about transformational rules of syntax and then describe of syntax the following method by parsing diagrams, finally. We will present some examples of more complex syntactic structure in language
Syntax is the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence. The syntax, which governs the structure of sentences. This section is an introduction to syntax in language as far as it relevant to the content of this book. It is not meant to be a rigorous discussion of linguistics. What I am describing is a simple orthodox view of the grammar of language. Some more complex models are discussed by linguists but these are beyond the scope of this description. This section is include for those readers who would like a brief overview without having to refer separately to a linguistics textbook. Those who would like to read more about the various linguistics theories should refer to the bibliography for references to linguistics books and to sites on the web covering linguistics topics.
Languages have rules. The rules of a language are called the grammar. The reason for these rules is that a person needs to be able to speak an indeterminately large number of sentences in a lifetime. The effort would be impossibly great if each sentence had to be learnt separately.
By learning the rules for connecting word it is possible to create an infinitive number of sentences, all of which are meaningful to a person who knows the syntax. Thus it is possible to construct many sentences that the speaker has never heard before.
A finite number of rules facilitatis an infinite number of sentences that can be simultaneously understood by both the speakers and the listener.
In order for this to work with any degree of success, the rules have to be precise and have to be consistenly adhered to. These rules cover such things as: the way words are constructed; the way the endings of words are changed according to context (inflection); the classification of words into parts of speech (nouns, verbs, pronouns, etc.); the way parts of speech are connected together.
The rules of grammar do not have to be explicitly understood by the speaker of the language or the listener.
The majority of native speakers of a language will have no formal knowledge of the grammar of a language but are still capable of speaking the language gammatically to a great degree of accuracy. Native speakers of language assimilate these rules subconsciously while the language is being learned as a child.
The Representation of Syntax
In Linguistics, the syntax of sentences can be described by different methods, for instance.
The syntax can be described, by the following methods :
1.Transformational rules
sentence Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase
Verb Phrase Verb + Noun Phrase
Noun Phrase Article + Noun
Adjective Phrase (Deg) + Adjective
Prepositional Phrase Prepositional + Noun Phrase
Sentence is a group of words, usually containing a verb, which expresses a thought in the form of a statement, question, instruction or exclamation and starts with a capital letter when written.
Phrase is a group of words which make sense, but not complete sense.
Noun Phrase is a group of words that does the work of a Noun.
Verb Phrase is a group of words that does the work of a Verb.
Adjective Phrase is a group of words that does the work of a adjective
Prepositional Phrase is a group of words that does the work of a preposition
2.parsing diagrams
Sentences
Noun Phrase Verb Phrase
(Subject) (Predicate)
Article Noun Verb Noun Phrase
( Object )
Article Noun
Where in the above example,
a.The puply found the child
The child and the pupply belong to the syntatic category Noun Phrase( NP ). Noun Phrase may be easly intensified because they can function as “subject” in a sentences, and only Noun Phrase may do son. Noun Phrase generally contain a Noun or Pronoun. Part of syntatic knowledge is knowing he syntatic categories of the language. You know what a Noun Phrase is even if you have never heard the term before.
b. Reduce taxes are at the heart of the debate about policy.
So, it seems clear that the grammatical properties of a phrase like reduce taxes are determinated by the verb reduce, and not by the noun taxes. We can say that the verb reduce is the head of the phrase reduce taxes, and conversely that the phrase reduce taxes is a projection of the verb reduce. Since the head of the resulting phrase is the verb reduce, the phrase reduce taxes is a verb phrase.
Part of Syntax
S
The child found the puppy
NP VP
The Child Found the puppy
Art N V NP
The Puppy
Art N
The tree shows that a Verb Phrase may also consists of a Verb followed by Noun Phrase followed by a Prepositional Phrase (PP). Additionally, a Prepositional Phrase is a Preposition (P) followed by a Noun Phrase. This tree ilustrates that a Noun Phrase may occur in the different structual positions below the sentence, below the VP node and below the PP node.
3.It is possible to construct sentence which are more complex than the example above. This is done by embedding further phrases within the basic structure. For example, in the sentence :
“ the boy with red shorts kicked the ball.”
“ with red shorts “ is a prepositional phrase that further describes “ the boy “.
This can represented, within the basic sentence structure.
Complex sentences
So far, we have looked at simple sentences – i.e. Sentences which comprise a single clause (Hence, all the clause in 221, 222 and 224-31 above are simple sentences). However, alongside these we also find complex sentences-i.e. Sentences which contain more than one clause. In this connection, consider the structure of the following sentences:
if we take a clause to be a structure comprising ( at least ) a subject and a predicate, it follows that there are two different clauses the smokes clause on the one hand, and the knows clause on the other. The smokes clause comprises the subject John and the predicate smokes; the knows clause comprises the subject Mary, the predicate knows and the complement John smokes. So, the complement of knows here is it self a clause. The smokes clause is a complement clause (because it serves as the complement of (knows), while the knows clause is the main clause.
Sentence
NP VP
NP PP Verb NP
Art. N Prep. NP Art. N
Adj. N
the boy with red shorts the ball
CONCLUSION Syntax is the branch of grammar working with “Syntax elments”. Syntax defines relational rules governing the logic structure of syntax elements. “Syntax elements” are words grouped on “Interdependent relational functionality”. Syntax elements exist onlymwithin the sentences structure, words are studied as morphologic sentence elements.
However, we will hope these article can be help you, and give your information about syntax. These article are not sufficient to understand the topics presented – far from that. For accurate and detailed information we recommend LOGICALLY STRUCTURED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Radford, Andrew., Martin Atkinson, David Britain, Harald Clasen, & Andrew Spencer. 2009. Second Edition. An Introduction to Lingustics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
